Wisdom Psychology:

What Does It Mean to Be Wise?

For many of us, an image of a wise person is a white-haired, advice-dispensing sage with a serene smile and an unhurried gait. But there is more to wisdom than theoretical knowledge and decades of life experience. And there is more than one way of being wise. Winston Churchill, for instance, was known for his practical wisdom, Mother Teresa had benevolent wisdom, and Socrates was famed for being philosophically wise. Where do our beliefs on wisdom originate and what insights does psychology offer into what it means to be wise?

For centuries, civilizations have passed down their ideas of wisdom through stories of a moral and virtuous life. These stories came from all over the world - the Sumerians, ancient Egypt, the ancient Hindu scriptures of Vedas, the Taoist and Confucian writings from China, and the philosophers from ancient Greece (Grossmann & Kung, 2018). According to these traditions, wisdom stands on many pillars - benevolence and listening to others (Confucianism); self-reflection (Taoism); letting life unfold naturally (Lao-Tzu); and questioning (Socrates) and intellectual humility (i.e., recognizing the constraints of one's thought) (Grossmann & Kung, 2018).

In psychological research, wisdom is viewed as a multifaceted concept with cognitive (knowledge and experience), reflective (the ability to examine issues and oneself) and prosocial (benevolence and compassion) components. When it comes to using wise thinking to make better decisions, studies point to the importance of perspective. In particular, viewing situations from a third-person (fly-on-the-wall) rather than an ego-centric point of view. This is because examining events from a first-person vantage point can limit our attention to the focal features of situations, making us more close-minded and defensive. On the other hand, self-distancing through a third-person perspective helps us relate events to a broader context. Perhaps this is why we are more likely to demonstrate greater wisdom when reflecting on others' lives rather than our own. And perhaps this is why we use our wisdom least when we need it most. For Igor Grossmann, principal investigator at University of Waterloo's Wisdom And Culture Lab, this finding, along with how variable and context-dependent wisdom can be, is among the most fascinating recent insights about wisdom.

Here are five questions on wisdom for Dr. Grossmann:

How is wisdom acquired?

If you consider wisdom to be a skill, then typically there are two paths. One is through relevant experiences - for example, exposure to stressors or conflicts in your life. The other path is through education. Virtues and critical thinking, for instance, can be taught to some extent. And then you need to enact them. That's how you generally acquire skills and for wisdom it wouldn't be any different.

What characteristics are most often associated with wisdom?

What we have found is that there are certain cognitive strategies associated with wisdom. One of them is open-mindedness. Another is a form of intellectual and epistemic humility, which means you recognize the limits of your knowledge. Then there is consideration of diverse viewpoints and the integrative ability to take different perspectives into account. These are the key cognitive features of wisdom.

How can we use "wise thinking" to make better decisions?

Research is really at the outset, but we have some evidence that features like open-mindedness, perspective taking, and intellectual humility afford a bigger picture. They help you to see the contextual features, which can, in turn, help you to identify a fit between the demands of the specific situation and the knowledge you may have about how to handle different situations. In other words, wisdom-related strategies can afford you a greater sensitivity for the context. They may also orient you towards a greater balance between your personal interests and the interests of others, and thus promote cooperation under some circumstances.

In what ways does culture influence wisdom?

There are three different ways you can think about this. One is the meaning of what is considered virtuous, which can vary dramatically across cultures. There are also different educational paths. For example, in North America there is an emphasis on achievement-it is even taught to elementary school children. In Japan, where the emphasis is more on perspective taking, this is not the case-at least not in the same way. And thirdly, there are different types of experiences people have in different cultures. Not only the experiences may be different, but the strategies for handling these experiences may be different as well. As an example, consider the ways people handle adversity and social conflicts. In Japan and Hong Kong, for instance, people don't really discuss conflicts directly at work. Instead, there is often a supervisor or a third party in charge of conflict resolution, which is not necessarily the case in the U.S.

Why is wisdom considered a universally cherished human virtue?

This is just a speculation, but if you take the evolutionary perspective, you see that the survival of the human species requires certain cognitive abilities, including planning, perspective taking, and some forms of coordination of efforts among members of one's group. Certain features of wisdom-consideration, integration of diverse viewpoints, open-mindedness-are thus, in some ways, essential for survival. In that sense, those who developed these skills in early hunter-gatherer societies were probably more successful and lived longer. Because under many circumstances, when you are dealing with adversities and uncertainties, these skills can help you to see the bigger picture and to coordinate with others effectively. Hence, wisdom probably had a role in the successful evolution of humankind.

Wisdom is one of those qualities that is difficult to define-because it encompasses so much-but which people generally recognize when they encounter it. And it is encountered most obviously in the realm of decision-making.

Psychologists tend to agree that wisdom involves an integration of knowledge, experience, and deep understanding, as well as a tolerance for the uncertainties of life. There's an awareness of how things play out over time, and it confers a sense of balance.

Wise people generally share an optimism that life's problems can be solved and experience a certain amount of calm in facing difficult decisions. Intelligence may be necessary for wisdom, but it definitely isn't sufficient; an ability to see the big picture, a sense of proportion, intellectual humility, and considerable introspection also contribute to its development.

Wisdom can be acquired only through experience, but by itself, experience does not automatically confer wisdom. Researchers are continuing to probe the social, emotional, and cognitive processes that transmute experience into wisdom.

How do researchers define wisdom?

Numerous theories are emerging to try to measure and model wisdom. A leading theory, developed by psychologists Paul Baltes and others, defines wisdom as "expert knowledge in the fundamental pragmatics of life that permits exceptional insight, judgment, and advice about complex and uncertain matters." That encompasses five key components: rich procedural knowledge, rich factual knowledge, an understanding of different life contexts, an awareness of the relativism of values and priorities, and the ability to recognize and manage uncertainty. These criteria are measured by introducing hypothetical scenarios and assessing what participants would consider or do in those situations.

But there are other theories of wisdom as well. Sociologist Monika Ardelt believes that individuals develop wisdom as personality characteristics encompassing reflection, compassion, and the pursuit of truth. Psychologist Robert Sternberg understands wisdom as balance between oneself and others so that actions are directed at the common good.

What are the components of wisdom?

Wisdom encompasses cognitive components, such as knowledge and experience, reflective components, or the ability to examine situations and oneself, and prosocial components, meaning benevolence and compassion. Wisdom is also connected to abilities such as perspective-taking, open-mindedness, and intellectual humility.

What's the difference between intelligence and wisdom?

Knowledge and intelligence are important components of wisdom, but wisdom is deeper than internalizing facts, theories, or processes. Intelligence explains less of the variance in wisdom-related performance than do personality traits, research suggests. Life experience is one of the strongest predictors of wisdom.

How is wisdom related to age?

Many people believe wisdom comes from advanced age, but the reality is more complex. Some research finds that wisdom rises until the mid-20s and then remains fairly stable until around age 75, when it begins to decline. Overall, old age doesn't seem to be necessary or sufficient for wisdom-what matters more may be the motivation to pursue its development.

Do hardships make you wiser?

Difficult experiences certainly have the potential for growth-but they don't automatically confer wisdom. Wisdom is acquired only by learning from the experience. Both research and clinical observation suggest that people who work to process adversity, derive meaning from it, and allow it to catalyze change are the people for whom hardships lead to wisdom.

How does wisdom differ across cultures?

Culture can influence which traits are considered virtuous and the education that individuals receive. For example, American culture places a stronger emphasis on achievement, while Japanese culture puts more value on perspective-taking. Experience substantially contributes to the development of wisdom, and culture informs which experiences people have and how they handle them.

How does wisdom relate to religion and spirituality?

Wisdom and faith are in some ways intertwined. They both depend on decentering oneself and seeing a broader picture. Religions often emphasize the importance of living a meaningful life, building community and caring for others, and mentorship and scholarly pursuits, all of which pertain to developing wisdom.

How to Cultivate Wisdom:

Wisdom largely emerges from reflection on past experience. Wise people incorporate past observations and opinions into a more nuanced style of thinking-considering multiple perspectives rather than black and white options. Being open to new ways of thinking, essentially challenging the status quo, can be a hallmark of wisdom and help to cultivate it.

Balance is also a key component. Wise people generally act on behalf of the common good but also ensure that their own needs are met, striving for harmony among competing demands and goals. Wise people also seek to understand the motives of others, rather than merely judge their behavior. In addition to fostering understanding and respect of others, wisdom can provide a fulfilling sense of purpose.

How is wisdom acquired?

Wisdom can be gained through a combination of experience and education. Living through experiences such as making weighty professional decisions or resolving painful relationship conflicts provide greater knowledge, and learning to think critically and broaden perspective in an educational setting can help hone the skill as well.

How do you make wise decisions?

When approaching a decision, open-mindedness, perspective taking, and intellectual humility can all help you arrive at a sound conclusion. These features create a bigger picture, revealing contextual factors that can help identify a fit between the demands of the specific situation and the knowledge you may have about how to handle different situations.

What concrete steps can I take to become wise?

Although wisdom is often perceived as arriving with old age, anyone can work to cultivate the trait right now. Identifying and expressing your values, being honest to yourself and others, focusing on process rather than outcome, learning from mistakes, and believing you have a contribution to make can help you become a wiser person.

Which historical figures are considered wise?

Wisdom can take many forms, including practical wisdom (for example Abraham Lincoln and Benjamin Franklin), philosophical wisdom (for example Socrates and King Solomon) and benevolent wisdom (for example Mother Theresa and Martin Luther King Jr.). Practical wisdom may resonate with people most, research suggests-visionaries who provide insight and work strategically to solve social problems.

Can wisdom be taught?

Historic philosophers such as Socrates believed that wise individuals struggled to transmit that quality to others, and that individuals were therefore inherently wise or virtuous. But some scholars today conceive of wisdom as a skill that can be taught, by imparting critical thinking skills and the importance of reflection, perspective, and life experience.

Fool Psychology:

Two Kinds of Fools:

Sometimes only a fool can speak the truth but sometimes speaks only foolishness

There are different types of fools, but two kinds of fools are especially troublesome. One is the fool who doesn't know he is a fool. The other believes that she ought never act foolishly. The first type learned nothing from life and the second learned the wrong lessons.

The first type of fool lives on the edge of danger, imperiling himself and others. The second type is afraid of taking risks, too concerned about what others may think. This is the overly cautious and conservative person, intent on fitting in, the person who doesn't experience life fully because she is afraid of being seen as stupid.

One aphorism, attributed to Abe Lincoln, illustrates one kind of fool, the second, often associated with Confucius, illustrate another kind.

Lincoln said, "It is better to keep quiet and be thought a fool than to open your mouth and remove all doubt."

Confucius said, "It is better to ask a question and be thought a fool for a day than to keep quiet and be a fool for life."

Living fully also means enjoying that which isn't already known; it means viewing the new and untried as sources of knowledge and wonder.

There are also those who are fools in name only. In the king's court, it was often only the fool who was allowed to speak the truth.

Here is a story illustrating a type of foolishness:

The daughter of a minister was about to marry. The pastor, her father, didn't have enough money for the occasion, so the church voted an advance on his salary. They would deduct a small amount each pay period over the next five years, until the advance was repaid.

Being a proud man, the minister went to the board of the church and said the following: "My friends, I want you to know that I'm accepting your kind offer with the following understanding. If I should live for another five years, that your good fortune. But if I should die before this debt is repaid, well, that's simply my good luck."

Foolishness is the result of a person misusing the intelligence God has given him. A fool uses his reasoning skills to make wrong decisions. The most basic type of foolishness is denying God's existence or saying "no" to God (Psalm 14:1). The Bible associates folly with a quick temper (Proverbs 14:16-17), perverse speech (Proverbs 19:1), and disobedience to parents (Proverbs 15:5). We are born with an innate foolishness, but discipline will help train us in wisdom (Proverbs 22:15).

Proverbs 19:3 says that foolishness is counterproductive: "A person's own folly leads to their ruin." Jesus in Mark 7:22 uses a word which means "senselessness" and is translated "folly." In that context Jesus describes what comes out of the heart of man and defiles him. Foolishness is one of the evidences that man has a defiled, sinful nature. Proverbs 24:9 says, "The schemes of folly are sin." Foolishness, then, is really the breaking of God's law, for sin is lawlessness (1 John 3:4).

To the fool, God's way is foolishness. "The message of the cross is foolishness to those who are perishing." (1 Corinthians 1:18; cf. verse 23). The gospel seems to be foolishness to the unsaved because it doesn't make sense to them. The fool is completely out of phase with God's wisdom. The gospel goes against the unbeliever's native intelligence and reason, yet "God was pleased through the foolishness of what was preached to save those who believe" (1 Corinthians 1:21).

The believer in Christ receives the very nature of God (2 Peter 1:4), which includes the mind of Christ (1 Corinthians 2:16). By relying on the Holy Spirit's indwelling power, the believer can reject foolishness. His thoughts can please the Lord, and he can make decisions that glorify God as he enriches his life and the lives of those around him (Philippians 4:8-9; Ephesians 5:18-6:4).

When it comes to our eternal destiny, one is either a fool, meaning he rejects the gospel of Christ, or one is wise, meaning he believes in Christ and commits his life to Him (see Matthew 7:24-27). The believer discovers that the gospel-what he thought was foolishness-is in reality the wisdom of God providing him eternal salvation.